Russia, 1894–1945: Tsardom and Communism

Overview:

From 1894 to 1945, Russia underwent monumental changes, transitioning from an autocratic tsarist regime to a communist dictatorship under Lenin and Stalin. This period encompasses the fall of the Romanov dynasty, the 1917 Russian Revolution, the establishment of the Soviet Union, and the impact of World War I and World War II on the country. The ideological shifts, social upheaval, and political struggles during these years were profound, shaping the course of Russian and global history.

This page will cover the following key areas of study:

• The Tsarist Regime (1894–1917)

• The 1917 Russian Revolution

  • The February Revolution

  • The October Revolution

• The Rise of Lenin and the Bolsheviks

• The Russian Civil War (1917–1923)

• Stalin's Rule and the Creation of a Totalitarian State

  • The Collectivization and Industrialization of the Soviet Union

  • The Great Terror (1936–1938)

• World War II and the Soviet Union

• Revision Resources & Exam Tips

1. The Tsarist Regime (1894–1917)

Background:

• Tsar Nicholas II became the ruler of Russia in 1894. His reign, the last of the Romanov dynasty, was marked by political repression, social unrest, and economic struggles. Tsar Nicholas was an autocrat who resisted reforms, maintaining strict control over the Russian Empire.

Key Aspects of Tsarist Russia:

• Autocracy and Political Repression: Tsar Nicholas II maintained an autocratic system of government, suppressing political opposition. The secret police, the Okhrana, were used to arrest and exile political dissidents.

• Economic Struggles: Russia was predominantly agrarian, with a largely impoverished peasantry. Industrialization was underway but was limited, and the country’s economy remained largely underdeveloped compared to Western Europe.

• Social Unrest: The discontent among peasants, workers, and intellectuals was growing. Strikes and protests became more common, and opposition groups, including Marxists, began to gain influence.

Key Issues to Revise:

• The nature of tsarist rule under Nicholas II, including the role of autocracy, repression, and the lack of political reforms.

• The impact of industrialization and urbanization on Russian society.

• The causes of social unrest and the rise of opposition movements.

2. The 1917 Russian Revolution

The February Revolution (1917):

• In February 1917, widespread discontent with the tsarist regime, exacerbated by military defeats in World War I and food shortages, led to mass protests and strikes in Petrograd (St. Petersburg). Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate, and the Romanov dynasty came to an end. A provisional government was established, but it struggled with issues such as the ongoing war and land reforms.

The October Revolution (1917):

• In October, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power from the provisional government in a coup. The Bolsheviks promised "Peace, Land, and Bread" to appeal to workers, soldiers, and peasants. The October Revolution marked the start of the communist rule in Russia and the withdrawal from World War I.

Key Issues to Revise:

• The causes and significance of the February Revolution.

• The role of Lenin and the Bolshevik Party in the October Revolution.

• The aims and actions of the provisional government and the Bolsheviks.

3. The Rise of Lenin and the Bolsheviks

Background:

• Vladimir Lenin was a key leader of the Bolshevik Party, which believed in the overthrow of the capitalist system and the establishment of a proletarian dictatorship. Lenin's leadership was crucial in the success of the October Revolution and the consolidation of Bolshevik power.

Lenin’s Policies and Reforms:

• Peace Treaty with Germany (Brest-Litovsk): Lenin pulled Russia out of World War I by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, which resulted in significant territorial losses but allowed the Bolsheviks to focus on consolidating power at home.

• War Communism: To finance the Civil War, the Bolsheviks implemented policies such as nationalization of industry and forced requisitioning of grain from peasants. This led to economic hardships but was seen as essential to maintaining the revolution.

• New Economic Policy (NEP): In 1921, Lenin introduced the NEP, which allowed some private enterprise and small-scale capitalist practices to rebuild the economy after the devastation of the Civil War.

Key Issues to Revise:

• Lenin's political and economic policies, including the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, War Communism, and the NEP.

• The role of Lenin in consolidating Bolshevik power and shaping the Soviet state.

4. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923)

Background:

• After the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia descended into civil war between the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and various anti-Bolshevik factions, collectively known as the White Army. The civil war was marked by brutal fighting, foreign intervention, and widespread starvation.

Key Events and Outcomes:

• Red Victory: The Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky, was able to defeat the White Army due to better organization, the strategic advantages of controlling major industrial areas, and the popularity of the Bolshevik policies among workers and peasants.

• Formation of the Soviet Union: By 1922, the Bolsheviks had consolidated power, and the Soviet Union (USSR) was officially established.

Key Issues to Revise:

• The causes of the Russian Civil War and the key players involved.

• The impact of the Civil War on Russian society and the consolidation of Bolshevik power.

5. Stalin’s Rule and the Creation of a Totalitarian State

Background:

• After Lenin’s death in 1924, Joseph Stalin emerged as the leader of the Soviet Union. Stalin transformed the Soviet state into a totalitarian regime, centralizing power and using repression to eliminate rivals and maintain control.

Stalin’s Policies:

• Collectivization: Stalin implemented forced collectivization of agriculture, seizing land from peasants and creating large state-run farms. This caused widespread famine, particularly in Ukraine, and millions of deaths.

• Industrialization: Stalin’s Five-Year Plans aimed to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union, with a focus on heavy industry and state control over economic production. This brought about significant economic changes but also harsh working conditions and repression.

• The Great Terror (1936–1938): Stalin used purges to eliminate perceived enemies within the Communist Party, the military, and other sectors of society. The Great Terror led to the execution and imprisonment of millions of people.

• Cult of Personality: Stalin created a cult of personality, portraying himself as a near-mythical leader and using propaganda to control the public perception of his rule.

Key Issues to Revise:

• The nature and impact of Stalin’s collectivization and industrialization policies.

• The causes and consequences of the Great Terror.

• The establishment of Stalin’s totalitarian regime and the methods used to maintain control.

6. World War II and the Soviet Union

Soviet Involvement in World War II:

• Initially, Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Hitler in 1939, but the Soviet Union was later invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941. The Soviet Union played a key role in the defeat of Nazi Germany, with the war on the Eastern Front being one of the most brutal and decisive theaters of combat.

The Battle of Stalingrad:

• The Battle of Stalingrad (1942–1943) was a turning point in the war. The Soviet victory at Stalingrad marked the beginning of a series of Soviet offensives that pushed the German forces back.

Key Issues to Revise:

• The role of the Soviet Union in World War II, particularly in the defeat of Nazi Germany.

• The significance of key battles such as Stalingrad and the impact of the war on Soviet society and the economy.

7. Revision Resources

Key Concept Overviews:

• A summary of the key events, policies, and figures in the transformation from Tsarist Russia to Communist Russia.

• Key differences between Tsarist and Soviet rule.

Timelines & Diagrams:

• Interactive timelines that cover major events, including the fall of Tsarism, the Russian Revolution, and Stalin’s rise to power.

• Diagrams illustrating the political structures under Tsar Nicholas II and Stalin.

Revision Videos:

• The Russian Revolution: A video covering the causes and key events of the 1917 revolutions.

• Stalin's Totalitarian State: A video focusing on Stalin's policies and the rise of the Soviet state.

Flashcards & Quizzes:

• Flashcards for key dates, events, figures, and policies related to Russia, 1894–1945.

• Quizzes on the causes and outcomes of the Russian Revolution, Stalin’s rule, and Soviet involvement in World War II.

8. Exam Tips

• Essay Writing: How to structure essays on topics like the causes of the Russian Revolution, the impact of Stalin’s policies, and the role of the Soviet Union in World War II.

• Source Analysis: How to analyze sources from the Tsarist period, the Bolshevik Revolution, and Stalin’s era.

• Time Management: Effective strategies for managing your time during exam essays, particularly when dealing with multiple historical periods and key events.